A Translation of and a Commentary on 100 Cooking Recipes from English into Arabic: How Culture and Culinary Translation Intertwine

: Not until the beginning of the 20th century did the recipe begin to be the subject of serious research and academic interest. It is even more rarely tackled in the realm of translation studies. The purpose of this work was to examine the recipe as a separate genre. One-hundred recipes were collected from five different sources, translated from English into Arabic, then both texts were analyzed through parallel-text analysis. This paper aims to identify the difficulties that translators may encounter in translating recipes from English into Arabic at the lexical, syntactic, textual and cultural levels. These textual features are divided into macro-textual and micro-textual features. The findings showed that there were no differences between the English and the Arabic recipe on the macro-textual level; however, there were some differences on the micro-textual level, such as the use of indefinite articles for reference, ellipsis, and the use of pronouns. The translation techniques that prevailed in the translation of culture-specific items (CSIs) were delineated. The analysis showed that the most commonly used method to handle CSIs was couplets (41%), while the least used method was free translation (10%). Furthermore, 223 CSIs were identified, classified and translated. Finally, text analysis was performed including analyzing word frequency in the source text which aided in creating a glossary of most frequent terms in the recipe genre.


Introduction
According to the Merriam Webster Dictionary, the earliest mention of the word recipe goes back to the word 'receipt' that used to mean 'a list for different types of medicine'.The two words recipe and receipt can be considered as synonyms, and they were originally derived from the Latin word 'recipere', which means 'to receive'.The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines the word recipe as "a set of instructions for making something from various ingredients".Ireland (1981) was one of the first researchers to offer a view on how recipes and cookbooks might provide a rich data source for food research.Genres are based on specific linguistic conventions which are suited to and constitutive of their cultural purpose.Consequently, the recipe has been identified as a separate type of text, which means that it serves a specific socio-cultural purpose (Thick, 2010, p. 352).Mulder (2015) believes that genre is a tool that can help the reader of a text in determining the social context, in which the text functions.Hence, this paper examines the recipe as a separate genre.Although the recipe shares linguistic features with the instructive text type, it is seen as "a member of a category, a culturally recognized artifact" (Lee, 2001, p. 46).Instructive texts, including the recipe genre, are written to ask the readers to follow a certain number of steps in a specific way.The steps are usually easy to follow and are comprehensive with an abundance of the 'imperative mood' found throughout the text of the recipe.In his research on genre analysis, Swales (1990) investigated the communicative purpose of discovering genres through text analysis that can help students and translators examine similarities and differences within one genre.In the genre analysis, the purpose is to shed light on various patterns of similarity in terms of structure, style, content, and intended audience.According to Swales, recognizing the copious types of genres "can be a facilitator of both comprehension and composition" (Swales, 1990, p. 38-58).Klenová (2011) discussed the recipe in connection with genre and register, where 45 recipes written originally in English from three different authors were analyzed.The analysis was conducted at the lexical and discoursal level to pinpoint the characteristic features that make the recipe different from other registers.On the level of discourse, the aim was to investigate the patterns of cohesion and coherence.Furthermore, Klenová showed that although recipes can look short and simple, they are defined by a complex set of situational characteristics, a high level of lexical diversity and a specialized vocabulary set that can only be found in an instructive text type.All these characteristics allow the recipe to be seen as an individual genre.Baer et. al. (2019) mentioned that most people will recognize a recipe but are unable to write one, or be able to tell the mandatory parts from the optional ones.In their study, recipes are regarded as a simple text type, although they can be deceptively complex, revealing layers of culturally marked, if not culturebound, content.Consequently, dealing with the recipe as a separate genre creates difficulties for translators due to its own conventions and features to be taken into consideration.

Statement and the purpose of the problem
Translating recipes is often seen as an easy task.However, there are various issues that a translator needs to be aware of and take into consideration when translating a cookery text from a language into another.Some of these aspects are culture-specific items, measurement tools, oven temperature, and portion size.The textual features of a recipe include subheadings, rhetorical structure, cohesive ties, and enumeration.The physical features include layout and typography, with font type and size.Recipes may also be multimodal, employing visual cues to illustrate the finished product or different steps of its preparation.With the inclusion of both written text and visual aids, recipes are frequently multi-semiotic (Baer. et. al., 2019).Although the recipe shares linguistic features with the instructive text type, it is seen as "a member of category, a culturally recognized artifact" (Lee, 2001, p. 46).Therefore, dealing with the recipe as a separate genre might create difficulties to translators because each genre has its own conventions and features.Mulder (2015) is of the view that recognizes the genre as a tool to help the reader of a text determine the social context or situation in which the text functions.Consequently, the recipe has been identified as a separate type of text serving a specific purpose (Thick, 2010, p. 352).Nonetheless, little to no research has been conducted on the linguistic features of the Arabic recipe.Therefore, this paper attempts to identify those features and propose solutions to solve the problems that translators may encounter.Moreover, it aims to identify the main strategies used in translating the recipe as a separate genre.

Study questions
The study aims to answer the following questions: • What are the key textual features of English and Arabic cooking recipes?
• What are the cultural indications in cooking recipes in both Arabic and English?
• What are the main difficulties that a translator may encounter when translating cooking recipes from English to Arabic at the lexical, syntactic, textual, and cultural levels?
• What suggestions/strategies can be offered to solve these problems?
• What implications may such a study provide to translators, translation instructors, and trainers?

Significance of the Study
To the best knowledge of the researchers, a limited number of studies have dealt with the translation of cooking recipes in the Arab world, especially in UAE.This study seeks to fill a gap in the literature.Exploring food discourse for translation purposes is worthy of research as the cultural context of a recipe may pose difficulties for translators.This study resulted in a glossary of a comprehensive culture-specific items to guide translators.A discussion of the recipe as a genre in view of translation studies can aid in transferring the content and the structure effectively.The findings of such a study may contribute to the development of the intercultural communicative competence of translators as they become cultural mediators.Moreover, the number of collected recipes (100) allowed room for analysis of problematic issues and translation methods on a wider scale.

Limitations of the Study
One of the limitations is that there are exhaustive amounts of CSIs that were not covered as they were beyond the scope of this work.The classification of CSIs had also a redundant nature and were subjectively categorized.Oftentimes the same word can have layered meanings depending on the cultural context.Therefore, choosing one meaning while leaving the other can result in a loss in translation.Finally, although this study utilized various translation methods, including existing and new translation methods depending on the type of CSI, we acknowledge the fact that other techniques for translation were not implemented.Nevertheless, some suggestions about what is worth investigating further can be offered, such as analyzing and compiling a list of collocations of food terms in Arabic and English in the recipe.Analyzing the Arabic TT is another corpus that can be further investigated in future studies.

Definition of Terms
Culinary Linguistics: is a sub-branch of applied linguistics.It is the study of the language of food across multiple interdisciplinary fields such as linguistics, anthropology, sociolinguistics, and consumption politics and globalization (Cavanaugh,pp. 84).

Data collection
One hundred cooking recipes were extracted from five different sources in English and translated into Arabic.The one hundred recipes were translated by the researchers.((1))This textual database amounted to 81,200 words in the source language (SL).Recipes were selected from "Feast of the Islamic World" by Anissa Helou (2018), which features mainly bread and meat recipes from all around the Islamic world, Keating's (2011) "A Love for Food: Recipes and Notes for Cooking and Eating Well", which deals with different kinds of cake, sweets, jellies, puddings, and salads.Furthermore, recipes were selected from Hill's (2003) "Cooking the English Way", which highlights history, holidays, and festivals attributed to each dish in the UK, Collister's (2014) "The Great British Bake Off" that includes different kinds of home baking in Britain.Finally, Mexican recipes were selected from Lee and Beisch's (2011) "Quick & Easy Mexican Cooking: More Than 80 Everyday Recipes.". Lee and Beisch presented Mexican cuisine to those who are unfamiliar with it and provided quick and easy recipes to make Mexican dishes.All the selected recipes were carefully chosen based on culture-specific content.

Method of text analysis
The researchers translated one-hundred selected recipes from English into Arabic, including the titles, ingredients, steps, additional notes, subheadings, and commentaries at the end of each recipe.Thereupon, the textual features were identified through comparative analysis of the English and Arabic recipes on the textual, syntactic, and cultural levels.Next, the problematic issues and difficulties associated with translating the recipe as a separate genre, and more specifically, in translating CSIs were identified and discussed.The translation methods used in handling CSIs were selected and quantified in accordance with their usage frequency.Furthermore, the implications that such a study might offer for translation students were reviewed.

Frequency Analysis
Importing the source text, analyzing the term frequency in the corpus, and visualizing most frequent words in a word cloud were performed using the R language of statistical analysis in R studio software.The R packages that were employed includes tm, dplyr, and wordcloud.The "dplyr" package was used for data manipulation, as it provided a consistent set of functions.These are the most used packages for data manipulation and data analysis, as they include useful functions that enable the user to analyze the data easily.The package "tm" present methods for data import, corpus handling, preprocessing, metadata management, and creation of term-document matrices.To highlight words that occur significantly more frequently in the ST corpus, a term-document matrix was generated, which is a table containing the frequency of the words and was used to build the word cloud using "wordcloud" package.In addition, the ST was processed into frequency lists using different sections of the recipe including the ending phrases in the introduction, and the serving sizes section.

Findings
CSIs identified in both the macro-textual and micro-textual features of cooking recipes In this study, multiple features of the one-hundred recipes chosen in English and translated into Arabic were identified on the macro-textual and the micro-textual levels.The title, list of ingredients, servings, instructions, sidebars, visual cues, topography, and glossaries were the main macro-Title Helou (2018) included titles (headings and subheadings) for all dish names and followed the same structure throughout the book.This means that Helou had two and sometimes three different titles for one dish.The first is in English, the second title is transliterated from Arabic to English and the third title is the location/country of each dish.For example, in the recipe titled "Somali Pancakes", we have the main title and then right after it in a smaller font we have the word "Anjero", which is a CSI, and finally "Somalia" the origin of this dish.Therefore, in the translation, the original structure of all headings and subheadings were preserved.On the other hand, Keating (2013) used one title for each dish and therefore, the translated recipes in Arabic had one title.However, long titles are a common feature in Keating's dish names, as in "Peaches, Spelt, Peas, Rocket and Mozzarella".Although, the original text does not include the word salad, the translator added the word ‫"سلطة"‬ in the title to give the reader an idea of what to expect when following the recipe.If one were to translate the title without adding the word ‫,"سلطة"‬ the title in Arabic would just be a list of ingredients and it would not make sense.Hence, the translation was ‫الحنطة'‬ ‫و‬ ‫المشوي‬ ‫الخوخ‬ ‫سلطة‬ ‫والموزاريال‬ ‫والجرجير‬ ‫.'والبازالء‬In contrast, the titles of the recipes in Hill's (2003) book were simple and short, and they rarely extend beyond two words.In this case, an identical writing style was followed when translating, therefore, no headings or subheadings were added or omitted (e.g.'Fried Bread' was translated as ‫المقلي'‬ ‫.)'الخبز‬ Finally, Lee (2011) wrote the names of dishes in Spanish and English, where the Spanish title is followed by a subheading with the name of the dish in English (Figure -2A).The Spanish dish name is transliterated, while the English dish name is translated using any method deemed appropriate (This would be more detailed in section 'Major translation methods used in the recipe genre and their associated CSIs').One could argue that it is not necessary to keep the Spanish name of the dish; however, the translator chose to stay faithful to the original text to provide the target audience with the exact titles present in the source text.For instance, 'CORN TORTILLAS' was translated as ‫الذرة‹‬ ‫,›تورتيال‬ while the spanish subheading 'Tortillas de Maiz› was transliterated to ‫تورتيالز'‬ ‫مايز‬ ‫.'دي‬ Adding a transliterated title when translating each recipe offered the target reader a look into the culture of the source text.In this case, it allowed the target reader an opportunity to learn more about pronouncing Mexican dish names.

List of ingredients
All one hundred recipes included a key textual feature which is the list of ingredients.Lee (2011) listed the ingredients without mentioning the phrase 'list of ingredients'.Similarly, Helou (2018), Keating (2013), and Collister (2014) utilized phrases such as "For the dough" and "For the sauce" as subheadings in place of the phrase "list of ingredients."Such inclusion or exclusion of phrases are a stylistic choice of the writer, which may not affect the meaning of the recipe or the ability to follow it correctly.Therefore, a translator is free to add or omit such subheadings while adhering to the context.

Servings
All recipes in the data included serving sizes which vary culturally.The 'portion sizes' section of the recipe is an attempt to provide the reader or the person following the recipe with an idea of how many individuals can be served.Although, serving portions are quite variable across different cultures, the translator adhered to the original text without considering the cultural aspect of the Arabic target reader.The one hundred recipes included a variety of different portion sizes as illustrated in Figure -2C.

Instructions
A list of instructions is the sequence of cooking steps.Keeping the list of instructions in the right logical sequence is important when translating.Thus, translators have to adhere to the chronological order of the cooking steps in a recipe even if some syntactical or structural changes took place on the level of sentences.For example, "Cover with a damp kitchen towel and let rest for 30 minutes" is translated into ‫دقيقة"‬ 30 ‫لمدة‬ ‫مبللة‬ ‫بقماشة‬ ‫العجين‬ ‫بتغطية‬ ‫قم‬ ‫."لتتخمر‬The word ‫"لتتخمر"‬ was moved to the end of the sentence, although "let rest" in the original English text came before the specified time given for the dough to rest.These types of changes do not affect the meaning of the recipe in any way.However, the emphasis is lost if translators rely solely on the literal translation method.Other optional rhetorical moves that were found in certain recipes are preparation time, total time, and cooking time (Figure -2D).Hill (2003) mentioned some of these features in a small list right after the instruction section but used a small font size.Such features represented in a relatively small font size merit special consideration and should not be overlooked by the translator.

Visual cues
Visual cues are considered a macro-textual feature providing the reader with a picture of how the dish will look like after following the instructions and showing what the dish will look like (Figure -1).All the recipes included in this research had visual cues with variable organizations.Some of the recipes had a picture of the dish right next to the title, while others included illustrative examples on a separate page (Figue-1).In the translated version care was taken to incorporate the visual cues in all recipes similar to what was represented in the ST.

Figure-1 An example of a visual cue in Anissa Helou's book "Feast:
Food of the Islamic World" (2018).

Typography:
Typography in the recipe genre is a key element that gives the recipe a special representation of the language.The authors of each recipe book had their own stylistic choices, including font, font type (i.e.bold, italic, underline) and size.Readers of recipes have certain presumptions regarding fonts, font types, and size, therefore digressing from these may affect the process of perceiving the translated text as an authentic recipe.If one were to translate a recipe and not follow its original structure, paying attention to small details such as font size and type, it might not read as a recipe.Cotter (1997) explains that when recipes do not have the conventional structural components they can be confusing to read.Therefore, translators must pay attention to these stylistic features and adhere closely to the original format.Different font, font types and sizes in the ST of each recipe book were identified and incorporated as closely as possible in the TT (Figure -3).Generally, standard font sizes in STs range between 10 and 14.The size varies for the titles and the captions, where titles are usually in a bigger font.According to Logsdon (2015), the font types that are generally associated with printed cookbooks are Georgia, Adobe Garamond Pro, Minion Pro, Palatino, Baskerville, and Goudy Old Style.The sources used for this research adhered to the general formatting outline.The translator therefore adhered to the convention of styling and the formatting used by the STs.It is interesting to note that such a process can guide translators in the future works relating to the recipe genre.

Sidebars
Sidebars are extra notes or information about the author or the dish.The sources from Hill (2003) and Lee (2011) presented sidebars in their recipes, therefore the TT incorporated the sidebars as per the ST in these instances (Figure -2B).

Glossaries
A glossary is a list of cooking terms with definitions, whether they are cooking methods, utensils, or just ingredients.Although glossaries are placed in a separate section and are not incorporated into the recipe, the translator felt the need to add glossaries as they were employed as a useful source to understand the meaning and context of cooking terms and ingredients in STs.Hill (2003) divided the glossary into three sections: "Cooking utensils", "Cooking terms" and "Special ingredients".Each section was used as a reference for those unfamiliar with some of the cooking terms.Examples of some of the ingredients include, "all spice", "currants", and "nutmeg".Examples of cooking terms include, "baste", "broil", "cream", "knead", "sauté" etc.The meanings behind such terms can be unfamiliar to an Arab reader.The glossary was used by the translator and is recommended as a guide to assist translators in producing TTs.

Micro-textual features in the recipe genre
The analysis revealed five micro-textual features in the recipe genre, some of which were identified in both English and Arabic recipes.For instance, all recipes contained coordinating conjunctions that join words of equal grammatical rank together (Figure -4).An example of an additive conjunction is, "and", for example "The first broad beans are harvested around the second week of June and will be small and very tender, and although the vivid green color looks fantastic...".In translating such texts, the usage of ‫"و"‬ was followed.Temporal conjunctions are another type of connectives that imply the time to do a certain action, thus making the text more chronologically coherent.For example, "until the…" is translated into ‫"حتى"‬ "Meanwhile..." is translated into ‫,"وبينما"‬ "every now and then" is translated into ‫وآخر"‬ ‫حين‬ ‫"بين‬ and "then take off the heat" is translated into ‫النار"‬ ‫عن‬ ‫الوعاء‬ ‫أزل‬ ‫ثم‬ ‫من‬ ‫."و‬ Another micro-textual feature in the recipe genre is the usage of the imperative mood for instructive verbs in English and Arabic recipes.The verbs "brush, melt, and fry" were translated as ‫أضف"‬ ِ ‫اقل‬ ‫ب،‬ ‫ذوِّ‬ ،".Moreover, the existence of compound and complex sentences is frequent in English recipes.For example, "The classic technique for forming paratha results in the most layers, but it is not so easy to master, so I use a much simpler method of folding the dough into squares, although it produces fewer layers." is translated into: ‫السهل؛"‬ ‫باألمر‬ ‫ليس‬ ‫باحترافية‬ ‫الكالسيكية‬ ‫الطريقة‬ ‫على‬ ‫العجينة‬ ‫صنع‬ ‫على‬ ‫القدرة‬ ‫امتالك‬ ‫إن‬ ‫على‬ ‫العجين‬ ‫لطي‬ ‫أبسط‬ ‫طريقة‬ ‫اتبعت‬ ‫ولذلك‬ ‫الطبقات؛‬ ‫متعددة‬ ‫عجينة‬ ‫عنها‬ ‫تنتج‬ ‫الطريقة‬ ‫تلك‬ ‫ألن‬ ‫أقل‬ ‫طبقات‬ ‫من‬ ‫ا‬ ً ‫مكون‬ ‫الخبز‬ ‫تجعل‬ ‫الطريقة‬ ‫هذه‬ ‫أن‬ ‫من‬ ‫بالرغم‬ ‫مربعات‬ ‫شكل‬ ".
The classic technique for forming paratha results in the most layers but it is not so easy to master so I use a much simpler method of folding the dough into squares although it produces fewer layers Oftentimes, long English sentences are difficult to translate to Arabic because each language have different habits, which naturally leads to different ways of expression and sentence structure.The translator moved the second phrase to the beginning of the Arabic sentence to shift the focus on the fact that making the Paratha using the classic technique is not easy to master.This syntactic shift did not affect the meaning, but rather summarized two phrases into one.
Finally, repetition is considered an essential lexical device that can link concepts in the recipe genre.For example, "Roll each ball of dough into rounds 6 to 7 inches (15 to 17.5 cm) in diameter, flouring your work surface and the dough every now and then to prevent the dough from sticking." is translated to: The Arabic language usage of attached pronouns ‫'لمنعهم'‬ ‫عليها'‬ ' ‫'لمنعها'‬ reduced the amount of repetition of the word "dough" from three times to mentioning it once at the beginning due to the fact that attached pronouns are prevalent in the Arabic language.Finally, repetition is considered an essential lexical device that can link concepts in the recipe genre.For example, "Roll each ball of dough into rounds 6 to 7 inches (15 to 17.5 cm) in diameter, flouring your work surface and the dough every now and then to prevent the dough from sticking." is translated to: " ‫ُشّ‬ ‫ور‬ ‫القطر،‬ ‫)في‬ ‫سم‬ 17.5 ‫إلى‬ (15 ‫بين‬ ‫حجمها‬ ‫يتراوح‬ ‫دوائر‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫العجين‬ ‫من‬ ‫كرة‬ َّ ‫كل‬ ‫ِّد‬ ‫مد‬ ‫االلتصاق‬ ‫من‬ ‫العجينة‬ ‫لمنع‬ ‫واآلخر‬ ‫الحين‬ ‫بين‬ ‫بالطحين‬ ‫عملك‬ ‫"سطح‬

Comments on translating culture-specific items in cooking recipes
One of the main goals in this study is to show the subject of food in translation studies as part of communication between cultures.The total number of CSIs found in the 100 recipes is 223.Examples include titles of recipes that were occasionally connected to a specific national or regional cuisine, such as "Moroccan Bread -K'sra -Morocco" as ‫كسرة"‬ -‫المغربي‬ ‫الخبز‬ ‫المغرب‬ -" (see Table 1 for more examples).Moreover, a copious number of culture-specific terms in the introductory paragraph of some recipes were collected and presented in a glossary (Table 1, and Table 5 and 6   Arabic.A close translation of the original expression would be, ‫المنزوعة"‬ ‫لحظتها‬ ‫البذور‬ ‫,"منها‬ "finely chopped" ‫ناعما"‬ ‫فرما‬ ‫."المفرومة‬Other examples of cooking vocabulary that is genre-specific are "start slapping the dough, ‫ابدأ‬ ‫العجينة‬ ‫,'بصفع‬ "aim for a circular swirl, ‫دائري‬ ‫بشكل‬ ‫بالتحريك‬ ‫,"قم‬ "elongate, ‫بشكل‬ ‫"طولي‬ and "make a well in the center, ‫المنتصف‬ ‫في‬ ‫مسافة‬ ‫."اترك‬Other examples included ambiguous words that are culture-specific, such as those presented in (Table 1).This cultural difference between the English and Arabic recipe might create misleading information or incorrect translations.Therefore, it is important to use the correct methods and procedures that will be discussed later in the suggestions section.
Additionally, having different terminologies for measurement in English and Arabic can be confusing for translators.For example, British cooking usually uses pounds to measure meat, while in Arabic quantities are reported in kilograms.The translator must be able to convert pounds to kilograms and vice versa.Other examples of lexical issue when translating into Arabic is found in "and although the vivid green color looks fantastic if you slip off the skins once you have cooked them, this can be quite fiddly…".When translating "vivid green color" into ‫الزاهي"‬ ‫األخضر‬ ‫"اللون‬ the word "vivid" can be translated into ‫"زاهي"‬ ‫"مشرق",‬ ‫,"حي",‬ but the translator only took into account the fact that we are describing a salad dish.For example, ‫الحي"‬ ‫األخضر‬ ‫"اللون‬ or ‫المشرق"‬ ‫األخضر‬ ‫"اللون‬ are usually seen as descriptive phrases of living objects, whereas salad is not.Also, "slip off the skins" was translated as ‫,"تقشير"‬ however if it were translated literally, it would not make any sense.The translator opted for a word in the TL which is similar or has the same relevance as the SL term.Additionally, "quite fiddly" and "quite big", were translated as ‫قليال"‬ ‫"صعب‬ and ‫جدا"‬ ‫."كبير‬The word fiddly means complicated or detailed and awkward to do or use, while the word quite can be interpreted in many different ways as it is shown here, which can be confusing without context.
At the textual level, the quality of the ST writing can affect the quality of the TT writing.If there are some ambiguous words or unclear instructions, a translator must go out of their way to make sure to deliver the information clearly and make the necessary changes.For example, there is a possibility a translator may reduce the speed of the reader's actions by joining two clauses, or sentences with a conjunction.One example is found in step two of making "Pita Bread" (Helou, 2018), the source text ends the step with "Cover with plastic wrap and let rise in a warm, draft-free place for 1 hour, until nearly doubled in size" and then step three begins with "Transfer the dough to your work surface."When translated, the phrase ‫ساعة"‬ ‫مرور‬ ‫"بعد‬ was added to make the connection with the previous step, although it did not exist in the source text.A translator can also split sentences, so the reader will get a clearer view of the instruction.Although the sentences in a recipe tend to be short, compound or complex sentences can also be found.For example, "Tannur is a flatbread, eaten throughout rural Syria, thicker than either saj or yufka, and named after the oven in which it is baked."The translator split the sentence as follows: ‫سوريا"‬ ‫مناطق‬ ‫في‬ ‫أكله‬ ‫يتم‬ ‫المسطح‬ ‫الخبز‬ ‫من‬ ‫نوع‬ ‫وهو‬ ‫التنور،‬ ‫خبز‬ ‫صنع‬ ‫يتم‬ ‫الطريقة‬ ‫بنفس‬ ‫إلى‬ ‫نسبة‬ ‫التنور‬ ‫خبز‬ ‫تسمية‬ ‫وتمت‬ ‫واليوفكا.‬‫الصاج‬ ‫خبز‬ ‫من‬ ‫سمكا‬ ‫أكثر‬ ‫التنور‬ ‫خبز‬ ‫ويعد‬ ‫الريفية.‬‫فيه‬ ‫يخبز‬ ‫الذي‬ ‫".الفرن‬At the cultural level, the absence of an ingredient in the TL that exists in the SL raises difficulties for translators.In this case, it is more effective to substitute a culture-specific term whenever necessary with an equivalent one in the TL, than to try and retain the connotation.Religious constrictions in the diet or the unavailability of some ingredients necessitate the need to find a TL equivalent.Examples of such ingredients are "prosciutto" and "bacon", where both refer to "pig meat" that is prohibited in the Islamic world.The translator used here free translation, a method in which you can delete or add meanings to keep the translated version sounding natural or appropriate to the target audience.In this case, the translator substituted the ST ingredient with a TL ingredient such as beef or chicken meat that is available and acceptable in the TL culture.
Major translation methods used in the recipe genre and their associated CSIs According to Newmark (1988b) there is a difference between translation methods and translation procedures in the fact that translators use methods to handle whole texts but use translation procedures when handling the text on the level of sentences, phrases, and words.The variety of procedures used to translate CSIs in the data show how difficult it can be to deal with all CSIs in the same manner.In one method called transference, the translator borrowed the word from English "Pad Thai" into Arabic language, as the dish name ‫تاي"‬ ‫"باد‬ is often used in both languages similarly.However, in other instances it is problematic to rely on transference, such as in translating "carlings" into ‫."كارلنجز"‬This transliterated term is incomprehensible by the target audience as it is not used in Arabic.Using the 'free translation' method and the picture of the dish helped the translator to understand that "carlings" are a type of pastry; therefore, it was translated to ‫."فطائر"‬In summary, this distinction between transference and free translation method demonstrates the need to rely on a variety of methods to translate cookery terms.Table 3 shows the methods used and the frequency of each method.Following Newmark's (1988b) procedures and methods of translation, six different procedures were used in translating CSIs.First, transference which is the process of transferring an SL word to a TL text using transliteration, for example, "Daylesford Blue" as ‫بلو"‬ ‫فورد‬ ‫."داليس‬ Second, functional equivalence which requires the use of a culture-neutral word.For example, "Canapes" was translated as ‫"مقبالت"‬ using functional equivalence.Third, literal translation in which the SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalent, but the lexical words are again translated singly in an out of context approach.For example, using literal translation "Mexican crema" was translated to ‫المكسيكية"‬ ‫."الكريمة‬ Fourth, free translation in which the translator produces the TL text without the style, form, or content of the original, as the case in "Bacon" translated to ‫لحم"‬ ‫أو‬ ‫بقري‬ ‫لحم‬ ‫."دجاج‬ Fifth, using couplets, which is a combination of two procedures, such as descriptive equivalent and transliteration which can convey the meaning of the CSI using additional explanation.For example, "Masa harina" was translated into ‫التورتيال"‬ ‫لصنع‬ ‫خصيصا‬ ‫يستخدم‬ ‫ذرة‬ ‫طحين‬ ‫وهو‬ ‫هارينا‬ ‫ماسا‬ ".The combination of transliteration for ‫هارينا"‬ ‫"ماسا‬ and the descriptive method that provided an additional definition of the term ‫خصيصا"‬ ‫يستخدم‬ ‫ذرة‬ ‫طحين‬ ‫وهو‬ ‫التورتيال‬ ‫"لصنع‬ was an example of couplets procedure.Other types of couplets that were also used are literal/ transliteration, free/ transliteration, literal/ communicative, functional/ transliteration, and functional/ literal (Table 3).
Table 3 and 4 present words frequency for the ST, organized into utensils and ingredients, ending phrases in the instruction section and phrases used in the serving sizes section of the recipes.These data presented in the tables below will guide translators in assembling a glossary of phrases used frequently in different sections of the recipe genre.

Discussion
Many studies have been conducted in culinary linguistics to investigate the discourse of cooking recipe and language.Although the recipe is categorized as an instructive text type; it can be defined as a separate register with several textual features making it a distinctive form of writing.The primary purpose of this paper was to identify the macro-and microtextual features of the recipe as a separate genre in Arabic and English.The researchers concluded that the similarities between the English recipes and the Arabic ones outweigh the differences.This is due to the fact that the recipe has a fixed structure and format, and it leaves no room for changes in the macro-textual, and oftentimes in the micro-textual level.A closer look at the literature on the topic of translating recipes from English to Arabic reveals a number of gaps and shortcomings.This is apparent in the lack of research on the topic of recipe as a separate genre and more specifically translating the recipe genre from English to Arabic.To help the reader, recognize the TT as a recipe, rather than just any other type of text or genre, it is essential to transfer the same number of macro-textual features upon translating the ST.Therefore, the researchers transferred all the macrotextual features that were found in the ST into the TT.The macro-textual features warrant special attention similar to the micro-textual ones.This is due to the fact that macro-textual features can help if they are concise, clear and related to the content, and can be misleading if they are irrelevant or poorly organized.On the micro-textual level, the English recipe contains lexical items that are commonly found in the recipe genre.For example, the word "curdle" is a language-specific term that means to separate or to cause to separate into curds or lumps.In the Arabic language, it is quite difficult to stick with the literal meaning of such words, therefore, the translator opted to use methods such as functional translation and free translation to handle this issue.
The study classified different types of CSIs in the selected 200? recipes as follow, dish name, ingredients, cooking utensils, sauce names, type of bread, and street food names.The researchers collected a list of 225 CSIs in a glossary to help translators and students of translation in the field of culinary translation.Providing the translator with the option of using more than one method, couplet was the most used strategy in translating CSIs, where it offered more ease and flexibility with foreign terms.However, descriptive translation was the least-used method due to its dependence on generic terms when translating CSIs.Saleh (2011) indicated that multiple kinds of translation methods such as borrowing, literal translation, and amplification can be used to translate food terms in menus.Mu (2010) showed that the best way to transfer the Chinese culture-specific terms is by including ingredients, methods of cooking, aroma, color, and flavor into dish names.Similarly, the researchers pinpointed the textual features of menus in both languages and how they are distinguishable at the linguistic, cultural, and social levels.Axis (2014) found that a translator usually aims at localizing a recipe to meet the tastes of the new market or to list some ingredients that might not exist in the target language culture.Likewise, the translator localized a recipe to take into consideration religious factors in the TT.The researchers also identified and overcame problems that can arise when translating proper names, culture-specific concepts, ambiguous words, and terms in recipes from English to Arabic.Moreover, the number of collected recipes allow room for extensive analysis of problematic issues and translation methods on a wider scale.Considering the previously mentioned findings, a compiled culinary dictionary with food terms from English to Arabic and vice versa can be beneficial to handle the recipe as a separate genre.In addition, employing visual cues as a source of information about dish names and ingredients can be very useful.One of the limitations is that there are thousands of culture-specific items other than the ones mentioned in this paper, as they were not encountered.Accordingly, existing, and new translation methods can be used depending on the type of culture-specific items being translated.

Conclusion
Rather than a simple set of instructions, the recipe was regarded as a well-defined text with distinctive features and cultural significance.A key implication of this research is demonstrating the influence of different cultures, and cuisines on the translation process.This study emphasized that the recipe is a separate genre with its own textual features.It provided translators with various methods of translation for handling CSIs, and presented an overview of the problematic issues one might face when translating a recipe.The textual features of the Arabic recipe differed from the English recipe at the micro-textual level, but not at the macro-textual level.Both Arabic and English used the imperative mood for the instruction part of the recipe.While the English recipe accommodates adjectives and expressive language, the Arabic one is found to be more rigid at times.Finally, compiling a culinary dictionary that takes into account the cultural context of recipes in Arabic and English, has the potential to assist translators in handling the recipe genre.The findings may potentially contribute to the development of the intercultural communicative competence of translators, as they become cultural mediators in the eyes of society.

Figure- 2
Figure-2 Examples of Macro-textual features in the collected recipes.

Figure- 3
Figure-3 Adherence to the stylistic features in the TT as it appears in the ST

Figure- 4
Figure-4 The conjunction word "and" was the most used word in the instruction section of the recipe as seen in this frequency-based word cloud.
in the appendix).

Table 4 : Word frequency for utensils and ingredients phrases
University of SharjahJournal for Humanities & Social Sciences, Volume 20, No. 2 June 2023